Adoption Assistance and Child Welfare Act - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 6 Words: 1829 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2019/04/05 Category Society Essay Level High school Topics: Child Abuse Essay Did you like this example? In 1980, Congress passed the Adoption Assistance and Child Welfare Act (AACWA) in response to the increasing number of children in the foster care system. This legislation required states to make reasonable efforts to avoid removing children from their homes and to reunite families when removal was necessary. Additionally, the AACWA provided financial incentives for adoption when family reunification was not possible. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Adoption Assistance and Child Welfare Act" essay for you Create order Then, in 1994 Congress passed the Multiethnic Placement Act (MEPA), which prohibited child welfare agencies from delaying or denying adoptive placements on the basis of race but allowed race as a consideration in placement decisions. In response to criticism that this perpetuated attitudes against interracial adoption, MEPA was amended in 1996 to narrow the circumstances in which race may be considered to those in which specific child needs make race important to successful placement. Counselor Considerations Ethical standards. The American Counseling Association has outlined standards of ethical practice for the mandated reporting of child abuse. According to the ACA Code of Ethics section B.2.a: The general requirement that counselors keep information confidential does not apply when disclosure is required to protect clients or identified others from serious and foreseeable harm or when legal requirements demand that confidential information must be revealed. Counselors consult with other professionals when in doubt as to the validity of an exception (American Counseling Association, 2014, p. 7). According to this standard, confidentiality is void when the disclosure of information is necessary to prevent harm to clients or when laws require it, as is the case with the mandated reporting of child abuse. It also specifies that counselors should consult with other professionals if they are unsure as to whether or not a breach of confidentiality is appropriate. The ACA Code of Ethics also addresses ethical record keeping practices as it relates to child abuse cases. Section B.6.h states: Counselors store records following termi nation of services to ensure reasonable future access, maintain records in accordance with federal and state laws and statutes such as licensure laws and policies governing records, and dispose of client records and other sensitive materials in a manner that protects client confidentiality. Counselors apply careful discretion and deliberation before destroying records that may be needed by a court of law, such as notes on child abuse, suicide, sexual harassment, or violence. (American Counseling Association, 2014, p. 8) Not only should counselors adhere to the overarching legal and ethical policies related to record keeping, but they must take extra precaution when handling documentation that may be needed in legal proceedings, such that related to child abuse. Counselors should carefully consider the consequences of destroying these records and use their best judgment in deciding whether or not to do so. Additionally, the ACA Code of Ethics explains that counselors should protect the confidentiality of minor clients in accordance with laws, policies, and relevant ethical standards. Section B.5.a states: When counseling minor clients or adult clients who lack the capacity to give voluntary, informed consent, counselors protect the confidentiality of information received in any medium in the counseling relationship as specified by federal and state laws, written policies, and applicable ethical standards (American Counseling Association, 2014, p. 7). Because counselors must operate in accordance with state and federal laws, they should be aware of the laws specific to the state in which they are practicing. State Laws. While all 50 states have laws mandating healthcare professionals to report suspected child abuse, each states laws contain variations regarding what to report and how to do so. Counselors must be aware of their states laws and procedures when deciding whether breaching confidentiality to file a report is warranted. In Arizona, child abuse is defined as when a parent, guardian or custodian inflicts or allows the infliction of physical, sexual or emotional abuse, neglect, exploitation or abandonment (Arizona Department of Child Safety, 2018, para. 2). According to Arizona Rev. Stat. ? § 13-3620: Any person who reasonably believes that a minor is or has been the victim of physical injury, abuse, child abuse, a reportable offense or neglect that appears to have been inflicted on the minor by other than accidental means or that is not explained by the available medical history as being accidental in nature, or who reasonably believes that there has been a denial or deprivation of necessary medical treatment or surgical care or nourishment with the intent to cause or allow the death of an infant who is protected under A.R.S. ? § 36-2281, shall immediately rep ort or cause reports to be made of this information to a peace officer or to the Department of Child Safety (Arizona Department of Child Safety, 2018, para. 3). The law further specifies that counselors and other healthcare professionals are required to file a report if, over the course of treatment, they develop a reasonable belief that child abuse has occurred. Professionals who report suspected abuse are under no obligation to prove abuse has occurred but are required by law to file a report of any reasonable suspicion of maltreatment to a minor. If the suspected perpetrator is the childs guardian, the report should be made to the police or the Department of Child Safety (DCS). If the child is not in the care of the suspected perpetrator, the report should be made only to the police. When filing a report with DCS through the telephone hotline or online portal, clinicians will be asked to provide the following information: name, age, and gender of the child and family members; address, phone number(s), and/or directions to childs home; parents place of employment; description of suspected abuse or neglect; and current condition of the child (Arizona Department of Child Safety, 2018). Individuals using the online portal will also be asked to provide their own name, professional affiliation, and contact information. Clinicians concerned about retaliatory actions on behalf of the perpetrator should be aware that, according to Rev. Stat. ? § 8-807, DCS will take necessary precautions to protect the identity and safety of the ind ividual filing the report before releasing any information regarding the investigation to the public (Arizona Department of Child Safety, 2018). By law, counselors are not required to inform the childs parents or guardians that a report is being filed. However, Peterson and Urquiza (1993) assert that it is often therapeutically advisable to do so in order to avoid feelings of suspicion, isolation, or betrayal. When sharing this information, clinicians should inform the parents that precautions will be taken throughout the reporting and investigation process to avoid injury or emotional trauma to the child. If the parent is the suspected perpetrator, the clinician can provide the option for the parent to self-report in their presence. However, allowing the parent to self-report does not negate the therapists individual mandate to report the suspected abuse. Informing parents of a report is not advised when there is concern that sharing this information could lead the parent to harm to the child. Clinicians should be attentive to parent factors that could indicate danger to the child, such as appearing psychotic, having poor impulse control, having a history of violent behavior, having substance use issues, or being likely to flee (Peterson Urquiza, 1993). Therapists should attempt to preserve rapport with parents by informing them of the situation when appropriate, but child welfare must a lways be the therapists top priority. The decision to report. Despite the clear legal and ethical guidelines requiring professionals to report suspected abuse, approximately 40% of individuals mandated to report child maltreatment fail to do so at some point during their careers (Alvarez, Kenny, Donohue, Carpin, 2004). To better understand why this occurs, Alvarez, Kenny, Donohue, Carpin (2004) identified four major barriers that professionals encounter when deciding whether to not to file a report of suspected abuse. The first reason that professionals provided for not reporting was a lack of knowledge of both the signs of abuse, especially those of neglect, and reporting procedures. Participants in this study frequently shared that they chose not to report due to a lack of physical evidence. Several clinicians also indicated confusion surrounding mandated reporting requirements and agency-specific policies and procedures. Many also felt as though they were breaching confidentiality in filing a report without complete certainty that abuse had, in fact, taken place. Based on these findings, clinicians should familiarize themselves with the signs of abuse, both physical and behavioral, and should seek out supervision or consultation to ensure that they understand reporting policies and procedures. If counselors are unsure as to whether a breach of confidentiality is warranted, they should seek advice from other mental health practitioners and/or legal professionals. The clinicians in this study als o cited concern about negative consequences for the client as a reason for not reporting. They expressed fear that filing a report would cause further harm to the client, such as by disrupting an already unstable family structure or by placement of the child into a worse living environment. Clinicians also indicated a negative attitude towards child protective agencies as a barrier to reporting. Many expressed concerns that state involvement would place the child at risk of experiencing additional harm due to delays in the investigation or a lack of follow-up. Several clinicians also shared their belief that child protection agencies would not do anything, even if they did file a report. (Alvarez, Kenny, Donohue, Carpin, 2004, p. 566). While these concerns regarding client welfare are valid, clinicians are expected to practice in accordance with state and federal laws mandating the reporting of child abuse. Counselors should continue to advocate for their clients after filing a report to ensure that precautions are taken within the child protection system to protect them from injury or emotional trauma during investigative proceedings. Lastly, clinicians cited concern about negative consequences for themselves as a result of filing a report. Some of these concerns included a fear of physical or legal retaliation from the suspected perpetrator, a loss of rapport with the cli ent or family, or not wanting to be involved in legal proceedings related to the case. Additionally, clinicians may also struggle to acknowledge abuse within families with whom they have built trust and rapport. In case of legal proceedings, clinicians should keep accurate and detailed records of treatment and decision-making and should seek advice from other professionals if they are unsure as to whether confidentiality should be broken. Clinicians must always prioritize child welfare and should seek supervision if personal concerns become a barrier to doing so. In deciding whether to file a report of suspected child abuse, clinicians should familiarize themselves with state laws and agency policies and should be familiar with both physical and behavioral signs of abuse. They should consult with a supervisor, colleagues, and/or legal professionals if they are uncertain as to whether a breach of confidentiality is warranted. Clinicians should remember that child welfare supersedes confidentiality and that they do not need to prove that abuse or neglect as occurred, given that they have reasonable belief. Counselors must always prioritize child welfare and should advocate for their clients th roughout the reporting and investigative process to prevent undue injury or emotional distress.

How to Calculate Retirement Funds Free Essays

To calculate the present value of interest and principal payments, you will need to use the NAP function, rather than the UP function, since the cash flows in the principal and interest columns are not constant throughout time. ] What do you observe when you look at these numbers? Explain. (c) Using your amortization table, what Is the principal that remains to be paid after you have completed 15 years of payments? How does this figure relate to the payments that you have already made? How does this figure relate to your remaining payments? Explain. We will write a custom essay sample on How to Calculate Retirement Funds or any similar topic only for you Order Now (d) Suppose that you had bought this house in June of 2006 under the terms scribed above. Since that date, the average house has declined in value at the rate of 1% per month. [This is the national average for the 3-year period ending summer 2009. ] Assuming that you also experienced this price decline on your house, at what point in calendar time will you owe more in principal on the loan than the house is worth? Assume throughout that you make every payment on time and that house prices continue to decline until at least this point in time. Answer the same question if you had paid 30% down Instead of 10%. Explain why your answers are different. E) Now suppose that your house from part (d) was located In Miami, FL. The average decline in housing prices over this time period in Miami was about 2% per month for the last 4 years. Assume that your house’s price declined by the same amount as the average house in the Miami area. How does a 2% decline change your answers to part (d)? Are the answers the same or different? Explain. NOTE: For questions prepare a spreadsheet model for part. Use this spreadsheet model with additional calculations for part b, c, d, e. Written answers to the questions in b, c, d, and e should be place on a separate worksheet In the same document. 2. Suppose that your salary at age 25 Is $72,500 and that you are paid on a monthly basis. You plan to retire at age 65 and will need 75% of you last year’s salary as Income after you retire for living expenses. You have saved $55,000 to date. You want to build your dream home to live out the rest of your life in at age 50. Based on current prices Ana an Notation rate Tanat Is expected to rise at 1% per year Inelegantly, you project this home will cost $1,000,000 to complete. You have some older relatives that have always had an interest in you and have indicated that you are in their wills. Assume that you will inherit $100,000 in 5 years. Assume that you like to travel and plan to take one nice trip every year starting at the end of your first year of retirement until age 75. The average price of the kind of trips you would like to take is $5,000 today and will rise with inflation. You project that your salary will grow at a rate of 2% and that your retirement income needs will grow at 1%. Finally, assume that you expect to live to age 85 and that you wish to have a balance at the end of your life that is equal to the present value of 5 years of your needed income. The appropriate interest rate for your working life is 9% and declines to 6% after you tire. Both rates of return are nominal. Assume that growth rate and interest rates are quoted as annual figures and reported as EAR’s. A) What % of your monthly salary do you need to start saving to meet your expected needs? Find the solution to this problem by taking all cash flows to the present (I. E. Age 25) b) Verify that your monthly savings from part a plus your initial savings and inheritance described above will allow you to pay for the house at age 50. NOTE: Build a spreadsheet model to answer these two questions and place it in the same document as your answers to questions 1 . How to cite How to Calculate Retirement Funds, Papers

Fears and Phobias Essay Example For Students

Fears and Phobias Essay Part 1. Phobia 1. 1 Meaning of phobia. A  phobia  (from the  Greek:   ,  phobos, meaning fear or morbid fear) is an intense and persistent  fear  of certain situations, activities, things, animals, or people. The main symptom of this  disorder  is the excessive and unreasonable desire to avoid the feared stimulus. When the fear is beyond ones control, and if the fear is interfering with daily life, then a diagnosis under one of the  anxiety disorders  can be made. This is caused by what are called, neutral, unconditioned, and conditioned stimuli, which trigger either conditioned or unconditioned responses. An example would be a person who was attacked by a dog (the unconditioned stimulus) would respond with an unconditioned response. When this happens, the unconditioned stimulus of them being attacked by the dog would become conditioned, and to this now conditioned stimulus, they would develop a conditioned response. If the occurance had enough of an impact on this certain person then they would develop a fear of that dog, or in some cases, an irrational fear of all dogs. Phobias are the most common form of  anxiety disorders. An  American  study by the  National Institute of Mental Health  (NIMH) found that between 8. 7% and 18. 1% of Americans suffer from phobias. Broken down by age and gender, the study found that phobias were the most common  mental illness  among women in all age groups and the second most common illness among men older than 25. Phobias are not generally diagnosed if they are not particularly distressing to the patient and if they are not frequently encountered. If a phobia is defined as impairing to the individual, then it will be treated after being measured in context by the degree of severity. A large percent of the American population is afraid of public speaking, which could range from mild uncomfortability, to an intense anxiety that inhibits all social involvement. Phobias are generally caused by an event recorded by the amygdala and hippocampus and labeled as deadly or dangerous; thus whenever a specific situation is approached again the body reacts as if the event were happening repeatedly afterward. Treatment comes in some way or another as a replacing of the memory and reaction to the previous event perceived as deadly with something more realistic and based more rationally. In reality most phobias are irrational, in the sense that they are thought to be dangerous, but in reality are not threatening to survival in any way. Some phobias are generated from the observation of a parents or siblings reaction. The observer then can take in the information and generate a fear of whatever they experienced. 1. 2 Causes Phobias are known as an emotional response learned because of difficult life experiences. Generally phobias occur when fear produced by a threatening situation is transmitted to other similar situations, while the original fear is often repressed or forgotten. The excessive, unreasoning fear of water, for example, may be based on a childhood experience of almost drowning. The individual attempts to avoid that situation in the future, a response that, while reducing anxiety in the short term, reinforces the association of the situation with the onset of anxiety. 1. 3 Clinical phobias Psychologists  and  psychiatrists  classify most phobias into three categories  and, according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV), such phobias are considered to be sub-types of  anxiety disorder. The three categories are: Social phobia- fears involving other people or social situations such as performance anxiety or fears of embarrassment by scrutiny of others, such as eating in public. Overcoming social phobia is often very difficult without the help of therapy or support groups. Social phobia may be further subdivided into generalized social phobia  (also known as  social anxiety disorder  or simply  social anxiety) and specific social phobia, in which  anxiety  is triggered only in specific situations. The symptoms may extend to psychosomatic manifestation of physical problems. For example, sufferers of  paruresis  find it difficult or impossible to urinate in reduced levels of privacy. This goes far beyond mere preference: when the condition triggers, the person physically cannot empty their bladder. Specific phobias   fear of a single specific  panic trigger  such as  spiders,  snakes,  dogs,  water,  heights, flying, catching a specific illness, etc. Many people have these fears but to a lesser degree than those who suffer from specific phobias. People with the phobias specifically avoid the entity they fear. Agoraphobia   a generalized fear of leaving home or a small familiar safe area, and of possible  panic attacks  that might follow. May also be caused by various specific phobias such as fear of open spaces, social embarrassment (social agoraphobia), fear of contamination (fear of germs, possibly complicated by  obsessive-compulsive disorder) or  PTSD  (post traumatic stress disorder) related to a trauma that occurred out of doors. Phobias vary in severity among individuals. Some individuals can simply avoid the subject of their fear and suffer relatively mild anxiety over that fear. Others suffer full-fledged panic attacks with all the associated disabling symptoms. Most individuals understand that they are suffering from an irrational fear, but they are powerless to override their initial panic reaction. 1. 4 Treatments Various methods are claimed to treat phobias. Their proposed benefits may vary from person to person. Some therapists use  virtual reality  or imagery exercise to  desensitize  patients to the feared entity. These are parts of  systematic desensitization  therapy. Cognitive behavioral therapy  (CBT) can be beneficial. Cognitive behavioral therapy lets the patient understand the cycle of negative thought patterns, and ways to change these thought patterns. CBT may be conducted in a group setting. Gradual desensitisation treatment and CBT are often successful, provided the patient is willing to endure some discomfort. In one clinical trial, 90% of patients were observed with no longer having a phobic reaction after successful CBT treatment. Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing  (EMDR) has been demonstrated in peer-reviewed clinical trials to be effective in treating some phobias. Raging Waters EssayThe facial expression of fear includes the widening of the eyes (out of anticipation for what will happen next); the pupils dilate (to take in more light); the upper lip rises, the brows draw together, and the lips stretch horizontally. The physiological effects of fear can be better understood from the perspective of the sympathetic nervous responses (fight-or-flight), as compared to the parasympathetic response, which is a more relaxed state. Muscles used for physical movement are tightened and primed with oxygen, in preparation for a physical fight-or-flight response. Perspiration  occurs due to blood being shunted from bodys  viscera  to the peripheral parts of the body. Blood that is shunted from the viscera to the rest of the body will transfer, along with oxygen and nutrients, heat, prompting perspiration to cool the body. When the stimulus is shocking or abrupt, a common reaction is to cover (or otherwise protect) vulnerable parts of the anatomy, particularly the face and head. When a fear stimulus occurs unexpectedly, the victim of the fear response could possibly jump or give a small start. The persons heart-rate and heartbeat may quicken. 2. 4 Causes People develop specific fears as a result of learning. This has been studied in psychology as  fear conditioning, beginning with John B. Watsons Little Albert experiment  in 1920. In this study, an 11-month-old boy was conditioned to fear a white rat in the laboratory. The fear became generalized to include other white, furry objects. In the real world, fear can be acquired by a frightening traumatic accident. For example, if a child falls into a well and struggles to get out, he or she may develop a fear of wells, heights (acrophobia), enclosed spaces (claustrophobia), or water (aquaphobia). There are studies looking at areas of the brain that are affected in relation to fear. When looking at these areas (amygdala), it was proposed that a person learns to fear regardless of whether they themselves have experienced trauma, or if they have observed the fear in others. In a study completed by Andreas Olsson, Katherine I. Nearing and Elizabeth A. Phelps the amygdala were affected both when subjects observed someone else being submitted to an aversive event, knowing that the same treatment awaited themselves, and when subjects were subsequently placed in a fear-provoking situation. This suggests that fear can develop in both conditions,not just simply from personal history. Although fear is learned, the capacity to fear is part of  human nature. Many studies have found that certain fears (e. g. animals, heights) are much more common than others (e. g. flowers, clouds). These fears are also easier to induce in the laboratory. This phenomenon is known as  preparedness. Because early humans that were quick to fear dangerous situations were more likely to survive and reproduce, preparedness is theorized to be a genetic effect that is the result of  natural selection. The experience of fear is affected by historical and cultural influences. For example, in the early 20th Century, many Americans feared  polio, a disease that cripples the body part it affects, leaving that body part immobilized for the rest of ones life. There are also consistent cross-cultural differences in how people respond to fear. Display rules  affect how likely people are to show the facial expression of fear and other emotions. 2. 5 Neurobiology The  amygdala  is a key  brain  structure in the neurobiology of fear. It is involved in the processing of negative emotions (such as fear and anger). Researchers have observed hyperactivity in the amygdala when patients who were shown threatening faces or confronted with frightening situations. Patients with a more severe social phobia showed a correlation with increased response in the amygdala. Studies have also shown that subjects exposed to images of frightened faces, or faces of people from another race exhibit increased activity in the amygdala. The fear response generated by the amygdala can be mitigated by another brain region known as the rostral anterior cingulate cortex, located in the  frontal lobe. In a 2006 study at Columbia University, researchers observed that test subjects experienced less activity in the amygdala when they  consciously  perceived fearful stimuli than when they  unconsciouslyperceived fearful stimuli. In the former case, they discovered the rostral anterior cingulate cortex activates to dampen activity in amygdala, granting the subjects a degree of emotional control. The role of the amygdala in the processing of fear-related stimuli has been questioned by research upon those in which it is bilateral damaged. Even in the absence of their amygdala, they still react rapidly to fearful faces. Suppression of amygdala activity can also be achieved by pathogens. Rats infected with the  toxoplasmosis  parasite become less fearful of cats, sometimes even seeking out their urine-marked areas. This behavior often leads to them being eaten by cats. The parasite then reproduces within the body of the cat. There is evidence that the parasite concentrates itself in the amygdala of infected rats. Conclusion We have come to the conclusion that: †¢ The meaning of fears and phobias are very close fears and phobias appear because of different reasons, happened to people †¢ feeling of fear is a defending reaction of our body to some shocking situations Resourses Bourke, Joanna,  Fear: a cultural history, Virago (2005) Duenwald, Mary. The Physiology of Facial Expressions,  Discover magazine, v. 26, n. 1, January 2005 Gardner, Dan,  Risk: The Science and Politics of Fear, Random House, Inc . , 2008. ISBN 0771032994 Krishnamurti, Jiddu,  On Fear, Harper Collins,  ISBN 0-06-251014-2  (1995) Robin, Corey,  Fear: the history of a political idea, Oxford University Press (2004) www. wikipedia. com

Inventions and Discoveries

Introduction Invention can be defined as a final result of imagination which could have originated from a mere conception or from experimental researches. Discovery on the other hand is initial or primary acquisition of a given idea or information by an individual.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Inventions and Discoveries specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More As invention gives credit to the person who performed the act as the actual source of the conception, discovery is a credit to any other person who comes across an idea for the first time with respect to himself or herself. Invention is therefore a special primary discovery. This paper seeks to discuss some of the significant discoveries that were made as a result of the inventions of the telescope and the microscope. The paper will look into the history of the discoveries and their effects in the development of the human well beings as well as the enha ncement of the human understanding of the surrounding nature in terms of changing the traditions and the society. Discoveries due to Invention of the Microscope The invention of microscope occurred in the sixteenth century. Believed to have been invented in Netherlands, the technology of the microscope was developed over time by the improvement on the lenses and other features of the microscope. Some of the significant discoveries made through the use of microscopes include the discovery of yeast fungus by Louis Pasteur and the discovery of cells that led to the cell theory (Microscopy, n.d). The Discovery of Yeast Fungus The discovery of yeast fungus is attributed to Louis Pasteur who was a French national. Born in the year 1822, Louis was schooled to advanced levels of education even though most of his teachers didn’t think of him as worth the higher levels of education. Louis Pasteur was the first personality to lay down the foundation of fermentation. He illustrated in hi s discovery the process by which yeast aids the process in which alcohol can be obtained from sugar. In his discovery, Louis disapproved the initial perception that the process of brewing alcohol from sugar was a purely a chemical process rather than a biological process.Advertising Looking for research paper on biology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In the discovery, he demonstrated that yeast is living organisms that can undertake a process of anaerobic respiration that yields fermentation (Science, 2011). The discovery made by Louis that established yeast as the driving engine behind the brewing of alcohol changed the traditional perception that the brewing process was chemical. It had been previously assumed and believed that the process of brewing alcohol was primarily a chemical reaction. The assumption of the chemical process in the conversion of sugar into alcohol subsequently covered a lot of risks that alcohol expo sed people to as a result of its bacterial components. In the discovery, it was realized that the fermentation process was infested by a number of disease causing micro organisms that included bacteria, fungi and a number of yeast species. As a result of the presence of disease causing organism in the fermentation process, steps were taken by another scientist to eliminate these organisms from yeast. The success of this elimination strategy allowed for a brewing process that was free from the micro organisms apart from the yeast. There were further studies and successes in the refining of the fermentation process which was fueled by Louis’ discovery of the yeast as the basis of fermentation. The move saw the development of the brewing industry and the elimination of disease causing organisms as components of alcohol. By so doing, the discovery by Louis improved the welfare of people by setting a stage upon which their health was taken care of. The elimination of the bacteria and the other organisms from yeast and further developments of the brewing process had the positive effects of eliminating the diseases and medical complications that were caused by these micro organisms. The discovery of the yeast further led to development of the knowledge of the biological sector of micro organisms and the subject of anaerobic respiration (Khachatourians and Arora, 2002).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Inventions and Discoveries specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The Discovery of Cells and the Cell Theory The discovery of cells was made by an English man called Robert Hook. Hook, after designing and upon using a microscope, made an observation in 1665 of substances whose composition he expressed as numerous little boxes. He named the little boxes as cells derived from the Latin meaning of â€Å"little room†. The discovery made by Hook broke the traditional belief that had exist ed among people that human body is one whole and uniform substance. Hook on the contrary brought people to the realization that a human body is made up of small tiny substances called cells. It has further been established that cells are the primary building elements of organisms (Crown, 2003). The discovery of cells, after a number of studies led to the establishment of the cell theory. The concept of the cell theory explained that â€Å"organisms are composed of similar units of organization called cells† (Meisler, 2006, p. 1). Having its history from as early as 1838, the theory described the cell as distinct element with its own features and as a component of a bigger structure which is the organism. The cell theory established the facts that living organisms are composed of these elementary cells, that the cells in the organisms are both structural elements and functional components of the organisms; cells are genetic with features that are transmitted during cell divisi on and that the cells have similar composition. The establishment of the cell theory, however, originates from the discovery of cells by Hook which was facilitated by the invention of the microscope. The discovery of cells refuted the earlier perception that the body organs were a uniform mass of substance. The discovery on the contrary illustrated that the structural organs of organisms are composed of small cells that together forms the organs or body parts. The discovery subsequently led the advancement of knowledge through further discoveries and studies about cells and the organs that they form. The extension of the discovery and the study of the cells to the discovery and study of the nucleus by Brown and the further exploration of the components of cell, types of cells such as the reproductive cells and the DNA cells have been explorations in the subject of biology. The study of the human anatomy which also originated from the discovery of cells has led to discoveries and imp rovement of human health through discovery of medicines that help in preserving human health. The cell discovery though a small ancient innovation, has developed to be the core of human health (Meisler, 2006).Advertising Looking for research paper on biology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Discoveries due to the Invention Telescope The invention of the telescope is, according Fowler (n.d.), officially attributed Galileo. The invention was formerly made by a man called Roger Bacon who failed to obtain a patent for his invention on the grounds that his innovation was too simple and could be easily reproduced. Galileo then later in his experiments discovered an improvement on the knowledge that pre existed. In his innovation, Galileo realized that the magnifying power highly depended on the ratio of the strengths of two lenses used in the system, the concave and the convex lenses. After his discovery and modifications, Galileo was granted tenure over the developments (Fowler, n.d.). The Dark Energy The invention of telescope opened the universe for study by astrologists. With a clearer and better view of the universe by aid of the telescope, many discoveries have since been made about the features of the universe and the changes that are taking place. One of the stunning discoveries made was the observation of the dark energy. Dark energy is a feature of the space. According to NASA (n.d.), the dark energy is exerting an effective force that is greatly accelerating the expansion of the universe. The discovery of the dark energy and the expansion of the universe posed a challenge to the previous theory of gravitational force. Under the theory of force of gravity, there would be no expansion of the universe as the force exerts an attraction towards the center. This discovery of the dark matter has further triggered the study into the universe by casting doubts on the centrifugal theory (NASA, n.d.). Walker (2010) expressed the fear that the extensiveness and totality of the dark energy in the universe which has a negative implication on the strength of the gravitational force yields a reason for worry. He recounted that scientists consider the dark energy to be a threat to the universe, though they estimate that the universe still has billions of yea rs of existence. The discovery is greatly developing the understanding of the state of the universe as more effort is being made to understand the effects of the dark energy. The dark energy is still more of a mystery but could turn out to be advantageous or dangerous to the welfare of people. More of its nature and effects are yet to be discovered (Walker, 2010). Planetary Nebulae The planetary nebulae have their history of discovery dating from the eighteenth century. The name nebula was accorded to these matters owing to their similarities to the color of Uranus and Neptune. The nebulae are gaseous substances with a fuzzy view and a recognized level of symmetry (Kwok, 2007). Their discovery added to the richness of the study of the universe. The ability to identify and view planetary nebulae was basically due to the existence of the telescope that has exposed the universe to exploration. Their discovery further led to advanced study that led to the revelation of how they are form ed, their properties and their distribution. The discovery can therefore be similarly credited with enhancement of human knowledge of the universe in general, and that about the planetary nebulae in particular. The knowledge of the formation of the planetary nebulae for example illustrates that evolution of a star leads to emission of a great wind. An instability created in the process leads to the breakage of the outer layer of the star. This results in hot substances that can then be seen as a glowing disc. An important idea noted about the planetary nebulae is the fact that they are reabsorbed into the â€Å"interstellar medium†. This means that the emissions in the process of the formation of the nebulae do not spread to the earth. This has a significant importance to the general inhabitants of the earth considering the fact that some of the foreign emissions into the earth’s atmosphere are normally dangerous with adverse side effects. An illustrative example is th e harmful ultra violet radiations into the atmosphere. The knowledge of the reabsorbing these emissions into their systems is a relief that builds confidence in people concerning their safety and welfare on earth. The discovery of the planetary nebulae has therefore promoted the development of knowledge through furthering studies and invention as well as stabilizing fears of external threats to the earth’s atmosphere (Darling, n.d.). Conclusion The world of discoveries and inventions has been in existence for over centuries. The inventions have been diverse covering both theories and instruments. The discoveries and inventions are on their merits spontaneous processes with one step leading to a chain of further discoveries and inventions. An illustration is seen in the invention of the telescope and the microscope that further led to discoveries of elements like the brewing process, the cell theory, the dark matter as well as the planetary nebulae of the space. These discover ies have in one way or the other developed the human knowledge by furthering studies and as well enhanced the well being of people either socially or in terms of health. References Crown. (2003). The discovery of cells. Strengthening Teaching and Learning of Cells. Retrieved from: https://www.google.com/url?sa=tsource=webcd=6ved=0CFUQFjAFurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.school-portal.co.uk%2FGroupDownloadFile.asp%3FGroupId%3D20629%26ResourceId%3D184101rct=jq=discovery%20of%20cellsei=OjiCTdelPI3W4gb8yvyACQusg=AFQjCNFNfuZDr4M94GIIv9XIXZxe2guWLgcad=rja Darling, D. ( n.d.). Planetary nebula. David darling Info. Retrieved from: http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/P/planneb.html Fowler, M. (n.d.). Galileo and the Telescope. University of Virginia. Retrieved from: http://galileoandeinstein.physics.virginia.edu/lectures/galtel.htm Khachatourians, G. and Arora, K. (2002). Agriculture and Food Production, Volume 2. Netherlands: Elsevier. Kwok, S. (2007). Planetary nebulae. ScholarPedia. Retrieved f rom: http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Planetary_nebulae Meisler, C. (2006). Cell Theory and Cell Organelles. Bemidjistate. Retrieved from: http://www.bemidjistate.edu/academics/departments/science/k12-science-units/Celll-theoy-and-organelles-biology.pdf Microscopy. (n.d.). The history of the microscope. Microscopy. Retrieved from: http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/intro/histo.html NASA. (n.d.). Dark energy, dark matter. Science NASA. Retrieved from: http://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/what-is-dark-energy/ Science. (2011). Louis Pasteur. All About Science. Retrieved from: http://www.allaboutscience.org/louis-pasteur-faq.htm Walker, L. (2010). Will Dark Energy Destroy the Earth? Retrieved from: http://www.ucg.org/commentary/will-dark-energy-destroy-earth.htm This research paper on Inventions and Discoveries was written and submitted by user Paula E. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The Effect of Life Changes On Stress Related Illness -Psychology Essay

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Describe the nature of Scared - Essay Example They developed the existing architecture from a several other nation they conquered including Egypt and improved it with their knowledge so it could fit with their wealth and the rapidly expanding urban population. In the Ottoman Empire, there was also a distinct connection between the nature of architecture and the cultural and religious beliefs and in many ways; the architecture reflected the Islam faith (Saound 2). For instance, Sultan Suleyman designed a mosque that had rooms that were specifically designed to accommodate travelers and strangers, engendering some of the basic tenets of Islamic faith. This paper is aimed at discussing Roman and Ottoman architecture in the periods between the 4th and 17th century in relation the religious significance borne. The designers of the first Roman temples were priest who lead in the practice of rituals in the period around 600-800 BC, at this point, the Romans were not the great nation they were to later become and did not even have an em pire. They would hold rituals aimed at the cultivation of Godly values, family and ordering the life of the society, the rituals would each get the formation of space deemed appropriate for them. With time, the priests would frame the space they needed for their rituals in the abstract; eventually, actual buildings were put up to contain the activities and this morphed into different temples; for different Gods and with different purposes. While Roman architects were expected to be practical in their work, beauty and grandeur were critical aspects of any construction commissioned especially for their Gods and Rulers. This is because the buildings were intended not only for the performance of public functions but also to impress not only the local but also visitors who would spread news of Rome’s grandeur. Gradually, the religious importance attached to Roman temples came to transcend the religions and the deities for whom they were constructed, retrospectively; Romans practic ed a syncretic religion with many gods who had temples dedicated to them. However, when Rome became the headquarters or Christianity in general, and the Catholic Church in particular as it still is, many of the temples were turned into churches and still functional as such to date. One of the greatest works of Roman architecture was the Madison Carree, located in Nimes, France; it was built in the 16 BC, however in the 4th BC when Christianity had entrenched itself in Roman social fiber, it was converted into a church albeit having served as a temple for the early secular Gods. A discussion of Religious architecture, Roman or otherwise, would be incomplete without a mention of the Pantheon; it was and remains one of the most remarkable and well preserved architectural works from ancient Rome. Built in 126BC, it has served as a Roman catholic church since the 7th century; it is made up of a huge Circular portico and there Corinthian columns made of granite three ranks of huge granite Corinthian columns (Moser). Probably the most amazing aspect of the design is the fact that the at the top, the temple is there is a central circular opening known as the Oculus making the temple a huge tourist attraction is even more popular during the rainy weather. Then, visitors can watch the rainfall from the top of the