E-recruitment Essay Example for Free

E-recruitment Essay This is,in my opinion, a development that is inevitable and wil be long lasting, yet appeared to be difficult to implement. As my interests are in Human Resource management, I fenced my research question by focusing on the implementation of e-recruitment and analyzing why the system did not deliver the desired outcomes. Literature assumed the relation between a proper implementation and a successful technology. Many big organizations use Internet as a source of recruitment. E-recruitment is the use of technology to assist the recruitment process. They advertise job vacancies through worldwide web. The job seekers send their applications or curriculum vitae i. e. CV through e mail using the Internet. Alternatively job seekers place their CV’s in worldwide web, which can be drawn by prospective employees depending upon their requirements. In this project more emphasize is given to the various E-recruitment processes or practices used in Indian people and it is also focused that how they differ among the old recruitment processes or practices. Effective E-recruitment is given a more knowledgeable and qualitative people who work related to the entire profile and given a best for his qualification. Its hierarchical structure gives preference to good knowledgeable person, and it is a best environment for attracting the best talent in the market. So, here are given some effective processes to go through a good job in the help of e-recruitment. Acknowledgement We would like to acknowledge our sincere thanks to our director who gave us an opportunity to prepare a grand project and prove our ability. Our sincere thanks to Prof Harsh Modha, our project guide who helped us a lot throughout this project and guided us in a right direction and his expertise in this topic also helped us to gain in-depth knowledge. We would like to gratitude our earnest thanks to the professors of MBA Department-NGI. â€Å"With sincere Regards†, Pooja Nimavat Declaration I am Pooja Nimavat, students of M. B. A – Sem. IV hereby declare that the project work presented in this report is our own work and has been carried out under supervision and guidance of Prof Harsh Modha,(Department of Management) Noble Group of Institutions, Junagadh Gujarat Technological University. This work has not been previously submitted to any other university for any other Examination. Date: 28-5-2011 Place: Pooja Nimavat. Executive Summary Recruitment is important for organizations since it performs the essential function of drawing an important resource into the organization. It has a strategic aim as it focuses on the need to attract high quality people in order to gain a competitive advantage. A new development in this domain is the use of the internet to attract potential employees to an organization, and is referred to as e-recruitment. Yet, in previous research it appeared that only 25% of the organizations indicated achieving strong success with e-recruitment (Chapman amp; Webster, 2003). In addition, e-recruitment success seems to be established by its process and procedure. Simultaneously, the consultancy is one of these organizations that report achieving only limited success with their e recruitment technology. Although it is known that e-recruitment success can be established by a successful e-recruitment implementation, further results regarding e-recruitment procedure are unknown. However, it is necessary to understand where of e-recruitment system comprises, because e-recruitment process is a matter of today. Therefore, the research goal is to good talented and  qualitative people are find out and give a good job opportunity and end the search of job. In comparison to other research, e-recruitment is, in this research, approached from the corporate perspective instead of the applicant view or interest. Based on a literature study, a theoretical framework is constructed to approach e-recruitment process. E-recruitment procedure consists of two groups of enabl ers, which are defined as e-recruitment system strength and e-recruitment management strength. The outcomes of e-recruitment are included as well, and referred to as success indicators. Based on this, three sub-questions are formulated: What are the characteristics of e-recruitment system strengths? What are the characteristics of e-recruitment types? What are the characteristics of e-recruitment success process? Based on document analysis and some recruitment process, these sub-questions are explored. It becomes clear that gains less success with their e-recruitment technology than expected. This cannot be grounded on factual data because of the missing tool, management reports. The technology turns out to contribute neither to time nor cost savings, and is perceived by users to be unfriendly. In addition, users pointed out that they find it even worse that the technology is applicant unfriendly. As these success indicators pointed out to be less positive, the technology seemed to be used in an appropriated manner. Returning to the assumption made in the beginning, there might be implied that the process was less-than successful, since a successful implementation should result in a system that delivers the desired outcomes. It reviews the list of objectives of the company and tries to achieve them by promoting the company in the minds of public. 2. It forecasts how many people will be required in the company. 3. It enables the company to advertise itself and attract talented people. 4. It provides different opportunities to procure human resource. Methods of Recruitment Recruitment is a process of searching for prospective employees and stimulating them to apply for jobs. Companies can adopt different methods of recruitment for selecting people in the company. These methods are: 1. Internal sources 2. External sources The sources can be further explained with the help of following diagram: Internal Sources of Recruitment Internal sources of recruitment refer to obtaining people for job from inside the company. There are different methods of internal recruitment: 1. Promotion Companies can give promotion to existing employees. This method of recruitment saves a lot of time, money and efforts because the company does not have to train the existing employee. Since the employee has already worked with the company. He is familiar with the working culture and working style. It is a method of encouraging efficient workers. 2. Departmental examination This method is used by government departments to select employees for higher level posts. The advertisement is put up on the notice board of the department. People who are interested must send their application to the HR department and appear for the exam. Successful candidates are given the higher level job. The method ensures proper selection and impartiality. 3. Transfer Many companies adopt transfer as a method of recruitment. The idea is to select talented personnel from other branches of the company and transfer them to branches where there is shortage of people. 4. Retirement Many companies call back personnel who have already retired from the organization. This is a temporary measure. The method is beneficial because it gives a sense of pride to the retired when he is called back and helps the organization to reduce recruitment selection and training cost. 5. Internal advertisement In this method vacancies in a particular branch are advertised in the notice board. People who are interested are asked to apply for the job. The method helps in obtaining people who are ready to shift to another branch of the same company and it is also beneficial to people who want to shift to another branch. Employee recommendation In this method employees are asked to recommend people for jobs. Since the employee is aware of the working conditions inside the company he will suggest people who can adjust to the situation. The company is benefited because it will obtain. Advantages of Internal Recruitment 1. Internal methods are time saving. 2. No separate induction program is required. 3. The method increases loyalty and reduces labour turnover. 4. This method is less expensive. Disadvantages of Internal Recruitment 1. There is no opportunity to get new talent in this method.

Is Street Art a Legitimate Art Form?

Is Street Art a Legitimate Art Form? Street art originated in the late 1960s with the advent of graffiti and tagging in Philadelphia and New York City (Walsh, 1996: 3). It has been developing ever since as new styles, forms and techniques are created and utilised by street artists (Walsh, 1996: 12). But street art is not generally viewed as art worthy of the status of works in a gallery or a museum, although as Walsh says, it is not strictly denied the status of genuine art because it utilises various aesthetic elements (1996). However, street art is often seen as radical or unconventional because of its location on walls and doors, on train carriages and in tunnels (Cooper et al, 1984: 15). These public spaces provide blank canvases for street artists, yet using them means that street art is almost always illegal viewed as a form of vandalism (Cooper et al, 1984; Chaflant and Prigoff, 1987: 42). While more legal spaces for street art have opened in recent years, there still remains the question: is it really art? In this paper I would like to explore this idea by making reference both to the history of graffiti and street art, the (il)legalities surrounding it, the ideas expressed through it and the ways in which the aesthetics created by some street artists make their work undeniably art. Street art as vandalism Id like to explore some of the oppositions to street art, to understand why street artists are vilified and their work denied the status of art. Walsh argues that the only reason why this occurs is because of the location of street art (1996: 2-3). He strongly believes that street art cannot be disregarded as a criminal act simply because it is not presented in a conventional manner, that is, framed and placed in a museum or gallery (1996: 3). I agree with Walsh, and believe that while street art may be unsolicited, and sometimes termed vandalism, that this does not meant it is not art. Nonetheless, the illegality of street art has stood in the way of it becoming recognised as a legitimate art form. As Ferrell explains, there are an impressive array of control technologies and techniques aligned against [street art], including a sort of public surveillance of street artists by concerned citizens who have been led to believe that street art is criminal (2004: 35). Ferrell cites exampl es from the United States in which antigraffiti campaigners have proposed punishments for street artists, including: a bill requiring that kids convicted of writing graffiti be publicly paddled à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ public caning à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ suggestions of lopping of hands à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ and publicly spray-painting [street artists] genitals (2004: 36). Understanding these angry sentiments means understanding why street artists are vilified. This also means recognising the terms street art and graffiti as having two different connotations. Street art has in recent years been seen as something with intrinsic value, with artist Banksy earning large sums of money for his wall stencils, and street art in Melbourne, for example, being recognised as part of the citys heritage and culture. However the term graffiti is still linked to the notion of criminal behaviour, and anti-graffiti organisations such as Removal of Graffiti Everywhere (RAGE) are committed to making street art in all forms illegal. Both Walsh and Ferrell argue that graffitis negative associations are due to its links with tagging, a style of graffiti done very fast, within a few seconds with the aim that his or her tag be seen by as many people as possible (Walsh, 1996: 12). But Cooper et al argue that tagging is in a different category to other forms of graffiti because it does not have the same aesthetic qualities (1984: 15). It is, in their words scribble (1984: 15). Here therefore I would like to make a distinction between graffiti as street art and graffiti as tagging. I agree with Cooper et al (1984) that tagging does not hold the same aesthetic or expressive qualities as other forms of street art such as stencilling or graffiti murals. But what I find interesting about tagging is the fact that it involves anonymity and an alias which gives the writer à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ a new identity (Walsh, 1996: 12). This idea I would like to explore further with reference to street arts illegality. Anonymity, resistance and historic significance Like taggers, acclaimed stencil artist Banksy does not reveal his identity to the public. This reinforces the idea that there is something even about his widely celebrated form of street art that is illicit. Similar is Melbourne street artist Deb, who goes only by nickname and is hard to track down to a name or place. In fact many street artists use either aliases or nicknames that ensure them privacy and no attention from lawmakers. The anonymity of street artists once again goes back to the beginnings of graffiti writing in the 1960s, when gang members and other individuals graffitied and tagged urban spaces as a means of self-expression. Walsh argues that the monikers adopted by graffiti artists at the time worked both to allow the individual to remain anonymous, but also to provide him or her with a means to express outrage and resistance through a persona (1996: 122). Ferrell agrees with Walshs idea that street art is a form of resistance, stating that such artists employ partic ular forms of graffiti as a means of resisting particular constellations of legal, political, and religious authority (2004: 34). I would like to consider the idea of street art as resistance as the first part of my argument for street art as a valid artform. As a form of self expression, street art is a creative method of communicating with the general public, in a forum much more open than an art gallery. Street art communicates the artists identity and his or her ideas, and because it is visual, it appeals to people regardless of their cultural, lingual, or racial differences (Cooper and Chalfant, 1984: 66-67). Walsh notes that street artists see their art as a rebellion against a repressive political and economic order: against established art markets or gallery systems, against Western ideas of capitalism and against ideas about private property (1996: 47). What comes out of Walshs analysis is that street artists are doing what all other great art movements have done before them rebelling against established ideas and mores about what art should be, and using the power of self-expression to appeal to cert ain audiences. In this way, street artists can be compared to groups such as the Fauves, the Futurists or the Impressionists, breaking from tradition and forging new ground in the world of art. According to Walsh, such aspects of street art make it important as an art form not only for its rebellion against art traditions, but those of politics and the state (1996: 49-50). This also fits into Camnitzers argument that art should be recognised as a universal set of skills and values within which everybody has freedom of expression, showing how art as a form of resistance works: to perturb society and achieve results similar to those of political actions. But distinct from political actions à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ art should shape culture on a deeper level and have a more long-lasting impact (1994: 38). Arguably, street art works to shape culture through resistance and rebellion while also influencing and perturbing society because of its ability to straddle the line between vandalism and art. Because street art is unique both due to its location and often its themes, it has the potential to influence the viewer and create change. As Williamson argues, it is the resistive power of street art that makes it important because it allows for the expression of ideas outside hegemonic norms (2004). She gives the example of street art in South Africa during apartheid which was the means for individuals to speak out against oppression, thus showing that popular culture resistance has a vital role in the life of the community and the struggle for freedom (2004: 8) Following Spitz I would also argue that street art is important as an art form because it represents history through its acts of resistance (1991: 17). As Ferrell discusses, the fact that places like the Berlin Wall were decorated with images representing hope and freedom, and graffiti that denounced the separation of East and West Germany shows just how much street art can act as a symbol of the times (2004: 34). This makes me think of works such as Goyas Guernica a mural not unlike some of those on the Berlin Wall, that shows the horrors of war and suffering. If we are to think about street art as representative of such historic and often horrific moments, then it is hard to denounce it as vandalism. Aesthetics of street art While I have argued that the expressive, resistive qualities of street art are undeniable, analysing the aesthetic qualities also show that street art is a viable artform. The production of street art requires established techniques and styles, most particularly in the use of spraypaint. Spraypaint is used in various ways for different artistic effects. As Walsh explains, street art developed over the years from tagging to established graffiti practices such as wildstyle, an integral, flowing piece of art (1996: 61). In more recent years the advent of stencilling has introduced a new technique into street art which requires artists to learn different effective ways of expressing their ideas (Melbourne Street Art, 2010). The techniques learnt add to the aesthetic qualities of street art and therefore show how image is linked to insight, which Spitz argues is of central significance to considering something art (2004). This is because emotional and intellectual responses to art cause a transfer of meaning between the artists intentions and the image he or she produces (1991: 2). The completion of street art involves imagination, planning, and effort, and is therefore similar to the execution of a more traditional form of art like a painting. The street artists must first do a sketch, then plan out characters and select colours. Next, the artist selects the surface on which her or she will work and creates a preliminary outline. If it is a stencil, the artist will draw the outline onto thick film and cut it out. Colours and ornamentation can then be applied using spray paint. Walsh argues that the completed product can be analysed according to the elements of aesthetic style: line, colour, composition, balance, tine and harmony (1996: 81-86). The structures and characters in the work can be read as a narrative, and the artists intentions communicated to the viewer (Walsh, 1996: 86). I would also argue that street art also improves areas that would otherwise be considered ugly, like abandoned buildings or industrial areas. One only needs to look at all of the street art in Melbournes colourful lanes to see how a place that could otherwise be an eyesore is made beautiful through street art. The impermanence of street art It is interesting to consider Walshs ideas about the impermanence of street art as a unique artistic factor. He argues that because of its quick removal from surfaces by councils and other clean up services that street art needs to be appreciated as fleeting, especially as: A piece which might be sixty feet long, twelve feet high, and take twenty to thirty cans of paint and at least eight hours to produce might be gone in a matter of minutes (1996: 108). In that sense, it is understandable why galleries such as Sydneys May Lane and Melbournes Graffiti Management Plan work to protect street art from being obliterated. May Lane provides removable outdoor panels on which street artists can work, and which are stored for later exhibition, while the Graffiti Management Plan works to protect laneway graffiti. Although they failed in April 2010 by accidentally painting over a Banksy work in Hosier Lane, the Graffiti Management Plan protected another Banksy work by placing it under perspex to remain forever as a street artwork. And as more and more tourists flock to Melbourne specifically to see street art, the lanes of Melbourne are taking on the form of outdoor galleries perhaps not that unlike traditional exhibition spaces, yet more public and therefore accessible. Conclusion In this paper I have argued that street art in both stencil and graffiti forms should be considered viable forms of art. I have shown that while the location of these works might make them unconventional, and indeed deemed vandalism in many cases, that they are nevertheless important both as an expression of individual identity and as a mode of resistance. Like all art, they act to reflect the artists ideas and the historical period in which he or she lived. They provide a break from tradition and they inspire the viewer, while also being aesthetically pleasing. While I differentiate some forms of street art from others, and show that tagging is perhaps less likely to be considered art than stencilling or mural graffiti, I believe that street art generally should be recognised as an important part of our society and an expression of culture and heritage.

Immigration :: essays research papers

For many immigration to the United States would be a new beginning during 19th to early 20th century. There were many acts and laws to limit the number immigrating to the United States. Many of these acts were due to prejudice and misunderstanding of a culture. One such act was the Chinese Exclusion Act. Form this one act many immigration laws and acts were made against foreigners. They hoped to control the number of immigrants arriving on the American shores. The Chinese Exclusion Act of May 6, 1882 was just the beginning. This act was the turning point of the U.S. immigration policies, although it only directly affected a small group of people. Prior to the Chinese Exclusion Act there was no significant number of free immigrants that had been barred from the country. Once the Chinese Exclusion Act had been in acted, further limitations on the immigration of ethnic groups became standard procedure for more than eight decades. Irish catholic, Mexican, and other races were not allowed the same freedoms that others were allowed. Even after a family had been here for generations there were not given the same freedoms. Since the arrival of the first Chinese Immigrants, racist hostility towards the Chinese always existed. They were predominantly male laborers, concentrated in California. They were vital to the development of western mining, transportation, and agriculture. Other races were also discriminated against, the Irish were not allowed to get jobs or live in certain areas of the cities. By 1880, the great fear of German-speaking and Irish-Catholic immigrants was over. Employers, who still sought worker-immigrants, and not just temporary workers, looked increasingly to southern and eastern Europe. When Italians, Greeks, Turks, Russians, Slavs, and Jews arrived in the United States in numbers, however, new anxieties arose about making Americans of so many different kinds of strangers. An 1880 this act gave the United States the one sided right to mandate to li mit or even stop the immigration of Chinese laborers. In effect canceling the right of the Chinese to enter the country. Congress quickly complied and made a ten-year bill that the President signed on May 6, 1882. While exempting teachers, students, merchants, and tourists the Act suspended immigration of Chinese laborers for ten years. The law was renewed for a second ten-year period in 1892 and then made "permanent" in 1902. Chinese Exclusion Act had set a pattern for many other immigration laws and acts to come.

Eating disorders Essay -- essays research papers

I choose to do these weeks health paper on eating disorders. I myself have dealt with an eating disorder and know the effects it can have on those you love and yourself both physically and mentally. Bulimia and Anorexia are serious, functional eating disorders. There are a lot of similarities between the two, but the few differences differentiate the two. Anorexia is an eating disorder in which a person has an intense fear of gaining weight or becoming obese. This person may eat little or nothing during the day, essentially starving themselves. This disease can cause a lot of damage to the body such as slowed heart rate, lowered body temperature and blood pressure, premature bone loss, loss of menstruation or irregular periods, change in body hair, grayish or yellowish skin and mood changes. According to several resources, approximately .5%-3.7% of females will suffer from Anorexia Nervosa in their lifetime. Bulimia is a person who binges and purges. The majority of bulimia nervosa patients are female. They will eat a large quantity of food in a short amount of time and then self-induce vomiting or will use laxatives or diuretics. They may also exercise compulsively. This person will can have damaged and discolored teeth, lung irritation, and muscle spasms, electrolyte imbalances that can lead to irregular heartbeats and heart failure and death. They may also have sores on the back of the hand that is for self induced vomiting. According to several resources, approximatel...

Essay --

From my previous journal I stated that I was very interested in finishing the rest of the books in the Odyssey. Well I have finished all of them and got some of my questions answered in class and I got some question that I did not know I did not understand answered too. In book 4 I left off with wondering why Athena protects Telemachus when she’s still upset with. When finishing up the rest of the Odyssey there are many things that are many happening. You have everything from; â€Å"all of the gods are accepting that Poseidon has gathered again on Mount Olympus to discuss Odysseus’s fate† in book 5. To â€Å"Athena makes the Ithacans forget the massacre of their children and recognize Odysseus as king, and making Peace being restored† in book 24. How one man goes through all of this is amazing to me. The Odyssey is nothing more than Odysseus telling us his story and all the things that he had gone through. Odysseus encounters many things that people do not believe to be true because all of his crew is dead and no one had ever don’t anything like he is saying that he has. Because his crew is dead there is no one to help tell all of the great adventures that they endeared. The main question I feel that never truly gets answered in the reading is that of wither or not the stories are true. Does it really take someone who loves his family 20 years to make it home? To return to his wife and son? And are the wife and son still there waiting for him to return. We know in the reading that they are but how does he know this? Is it because that’s how it was back then or why? Why did it take him the seven years for him to build a boat to leave the island of Cyclopes and start to make is way back home. When he finally manages to get the boat made to ... ... I keep saying this but I really don’t know wither or not I can take this story ad being true I things some of the things could have happened but not all of them. I’m not sure why I find it so hard to believe but I do. While reflecting on this reading I have really stopped to think about what I am reading and if I believe it to be true or not. Could the Odyssey be written different so that it’s more understandable? Or should we already be able to understand the text? I feel that the book could take a whole semester to cover it we were to truly take the time to truly read it not just read it and go on. I can see myself rereading the books and trying to understand more and looking for things that I have missed the first time though. Works Cited Brian Wilkie, J. H. (2001). Lliterature of the Western World Vol. 1. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. The Odyssey, pages 273-594

A Teenage Life Essay

A long time ago,in 1998, a female child was born with nothing on her mind. A child who gently sleeps in her mothers arm, and always cries when she gets hungry. This child grew up to become a great kid. This kid grew up to be me. Respected teacher and my dear friends. I, Fatima Fakrudheen feel privileged to stand before you all to deliver a speech on ’Teenage life’ . â€Å"Before I speak, I’ve got something important to say†¦ I was told to be accurate. Be brief. And be seated. I promise I will be as brief as possible..no matter how long it takes† Since childhood, I was the happy-go-lucky kid. I really never bothered everything but only play with myfriends. I was so gleeful, cheerful, and always think positively. I love my friends, and they do love me. But my entirelife changed when I entered this critical stage in life where everything should be systematic. A new chapter in lifewhere everything calls for desperate measures. Teenage life is a chapter of our life where we teens should be meticulous in everything we do. In here, our body grows older, and we can ¶t imagine the things growing in our skins as we go through this stage in life. Haveyou imagined it? That as we go through this stage, everything changes «physically, mentally, socially, and most of all, emotionally.As we go through life, we meet changes. Changes that will make our character stand above all. What you do now will lay the foundation for your state in the future.For a short period of our adolescence, we must try to make this the exciting,enjoyable, and memorable times in our life.As a teenager, we are in that enviable stage where everything is positioned to go our way. We are young,full of energy, we feel like we are invincible, totally carefree and becoming free and more independent.We will also have a thousand and one questions as we enter this new stage of life. This is the time whenwe actually need the guidance and support of our parents and older  people.We are social creatures and the need for companionship is most pronounced among teenagers. Thecompany we keep will have a great effect in our teenage life. Choosing the right circle of friends will save us a lot of troubles, heartaches and possibly a life of deep regret. Enjoy the company of different kinds of people and develop important social skills.

MRI Radiation – Dangers & Benefits

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a new technology for making images of the brain and other parts of the body. The technique depends on detection of a phenomenon called nuclear magnetic resonance, and also sometimes called NMR scanning. The discovery and development of MRI imaging is one of the most spectacular and successful events in the history of medical imaging. The nuclei of some atoms in the body are composed of numbers of nuclear particles. Such nuclei can be detected by sending weak energy signals through very strong magnetic fields. The MRI machine consists of a set of powerful magnets and a source of energy in the same general range used for broadcasting radio. The radio signal is affected in predictable ways by the number of odd-numbered nuclei in its path (Oldendorf; Boller, Grafman and Robertson). The MRI Procedure The MRI contains the massive main magnet, which is always on. The unit structure is approximately six or seven feet high and equally wide. As a patient, you will lie on your back on a special table that slides into the magnet through a two-foot-wide tunnel in the middle of the machine. Whether you go in head or feet first depends on the tissue being imaged. Be prepares for a loud knocking noise; this is not a silent machine. The loud knocking noise is caused by the gradients (small magnets) expanding against the supporting brackets. The MRI scanner will able to pick out voxels (three-dimensional cubes) maybe only one millimeter on each side. It will make a two-dimensional or three-dimensional map of tissue type. The computer will integrate this information and create two dimensional images (the usual) or three-dimensional models. The whole procedure takes from 30-60 minutes (Moe). Advantages and Disadvantages Due to the nature of the magnetic probe used in MRI, this technique possesses several fundamental advantages: 1) tissue can be characterized in a number of ways, 2) any plane can be imaged 3) bone is invisible, so all anatomic regions can be examined, and harper images are produced 4) no contrast medium is required and 5) there is no ionizing radiation, which makes it safe for children and for repeated scanning of the same person 6) the level of detailed exceeds the detail of other imaging techniques. At the present time, there are also several disadvantages 1) he complexity and high cost 2) the long scan time, 3) the noise isolation experienced by patient during scan and 4) the exclusion of substantial fraction of patients dues to pacemakers, metallic artifacts, and inability to cooperate. Furthermore, magnetic strength can be a dangerous thing. Stories abound the magnet’s power to pull metal objects (such as paper clips, keys, scissors, stethoscopes, IV poles, and even oxygen tanks) toward the patient and into the machine. Even worse, accidents have occurred with metal inside a patient. After an MRI, a metal worker went blind because the magnet moved microscopic metal particles in his eyes, damaging their surrounding structures. A survivor of and aneurysm died during an MRI because the magnet tore off the metal clips holding together a blood vessel in her brain, causing her to bleed to death. The patient must stay absolutely motionless during the procedure. (Minor motion does not have as much impact on a CT scan.) Therefore, a sedative is often necessary for a child having an MRI scan. The first three of these are under active development, and improvement can be expected. However, gradient coil noise, pacemakers and metallic artifacts are more fundamental problems for which solutions are not yet apparent (Stergiopoulos). MRI in association with CT Magnetic resonance imaging is another method for displaying anatomy in the axial, sagittal, and coronal planes. The slice thickness of the images vary between 1 and 10 mm. MRI is especially good for coronal and sagittal imaging, whereas axial imaging is the forte of CT. One of the main strengths of MRI is its ability to detect small changes (contrast) within soft tissues, and MRI soft tissue contrast is better than that found in CT images and radiographs. CT and MR imaging modalities are digital-cased technologies that require computers to convert digital information to shades of black, white and gray. The major difference in the two technologies is that in MRI the patient is exposed o external magnetic fields and radio frequency waves, whereas the patient is exposed to x-rays during a CT study. The magnetic fields used in MRI are believed to be harmless. MR scanning can be a problem for people who are prone to develop claustrophobia because they are surrounded by a tunnel-like structure for approximately 30-45 minutes. The external appearance of an MRI scanner or machine is similar to a CT scanner with the exception that the opening is the MR gantry is more tunnel-like. As in CT, the patient is comfortably positioned supine, prone, or decubitus on a couch. The couch moves only when examining the extremities. The patient hears and feels a jackhammer-like thumping while the study is in progress. The underlying physics of MRI is complicated and strange-sounding terms proliferate. Let’s keep it simple: MRI is essentially the imaging of protons. The most commonly imaged proton is hydrogen, as it is abundant in the human body and is easily manipulated by a magnetic field. However other nuclei can be imaged. Because the hydrogen proton has a positive charge and is constantly spinning at a fixed frequency, called the spin frequency, a small magnetic field with a north and south pole surrounds the proton. Remember that moving charged particles creates a surrounding magnetic field. Thus, these hydrogen protons act like magnets and align themselves within an external magnetic field or the needle of a compass. In the MR scanner, or magnet, short bursts of radio frequency waves are broadcast into the patient from radio transmitters. The broadcast radio wave frequency is the same as the spin frequency of the proton being imaged (hydrogen in this case). The hydrogen protons absorb the broadcast radio wave energy and become energized, or resonate. Hence, the term magnetic resonance. Once the radio-frequency wave broadcast is discontinued, the protons revert or decay back to their normal or steady state that existed prior to the radio wave broadcast. As the hydrogen protons decay back to their normal state or relax, they continue to resonate and broadcast radio waves that can be detected by a radio wave receiver set to the same frequency as the broadcast waves and the hydrogen proton spin frequency. The intensity of the radio wave signal detected by the receiver coil indicates the numbers and locations of the resonating hydrogen protons. Although human anatomy is always the same no matter what the imaging modality, the appearances of anatomic structures are very different on MR and CT images. Sometimes it is difficult for the beginner to differentiate between a CT and an MR image. The secret is to look to the fat. If the subcutaneous fat is black, it is a CT image as fat appears black on studies that use x-rays. If the subcutaneous fat is white (high-intensity signal), then it has to be an MR. next, look to the bones. Bones should have a gray medullary canal and a white cortex on radiographs and CT images. The medullary canal contains bone marrow, and the gray is due to the large amount of fat in bone marrow. On a MR image, nearly all of the bone appears homogenously white as the bone marrow is fat that emits a high-intensity signal and appears white. Also, on MR the cortex of the bone will appear black (dark or low intensity signal), whereas on CT images the cortex is white. Soft tissues and organs appear as shades of gray on CT and MR. Air appears black on CT and MR. air appears black on CT and has a low-intensity signal (black or dark) on MR (Moe). Intraoperative MRI At present, MRI is, by far, the most useful imaging modality for visualizing intracerebral tumors. It provides the most clear, detailed, and comprehensive diagnostic information regarding the tumor ad surrounding normal structures. The introduction of MRI and image-guided technology into the operating room thus allows the surgeon to use high-quality, current image data that reflect the surgical reality of brain tissue deformations and shifts that occur after the bone flap has been turned, the dura opened, and the resection begun. Today’s intraoperative MRI systems can be classified into two main groups: 1) the high field strength systems and 2) the low compact systems. Both types of systems have advantages and disadvantages. The high-field strength systems (0.5-1.5 T) are typically mounted on a stationary gantry and have gradient capabilities sufficient to produce full head images of quality comparable to that of diagnostic MRI. Magnetic resonance imaging can satisfy these requirements for therapy. It has excellent anatomic resolution for targeting, high sensitivity for localizing tumors, and temperature sensitivity for online treatment monitoring. Several MRI parameters are temperature sensitive; the one based on the proton resonance frequency allows relatively small temperature elevations to be detected prior to any irreversible tissue damage. Thus, the location of the focus can be detected at relatively low powers, and the accuracy of targeting can be verified. In addition, using calibrated temperature-sensitive MRI sequences, focal temperature elevations and effective thermal doses may be estimated. Such thermal quantification allows for online feedback to ensure that the treatment is safe, by assuring that the focal heating is confined to the target volume and below the level for boiling. Thermal assessment predicts effectiveness by assuring that the temperature history is sufficient to ensure thermal coagulation (Moore and Zouridakis). Conclusion Since the first availability of commercial instruments at the beginning of the 1980s, clinical MR has expanded rapidly in terms of both medical applications and the number of units installed. First considered to be expensive method to create images of inferior quality, it has since established itself as a clinical tool for diagnosis in previously inconceivable applications, and the potential of the method is still not exhausted. MRI has led to the first-scale industrial application of superconductivity and has brought about a grater public awareness of a physical effect previously known only to a handful of scientists. Up to now, the growth and spectrum of applications of MR have exceeded all predictions. The most recent development is that of rendering brain functions visible. Cardiac MR can display coronaries and analyze perfusion of the myocardium and hemodynamics of the heart. Thus, MRI is entering the domain of nuclear medicine. An interesting new application of MRI is its use as an imaging modality during minimal invasive procedures such as ablation, interstitial laser therapy, or high intensity focused ultrasound. With temperature-sensitive sequences, the development of temperature and tissue damage can be checked during heating and destroying of diseased tissue. The sensitivity of MRI to flow helps the physician to stay away from vessels during an intervention. MRI is also used for image-guided surgery, e.g., resection of tumors in the brain. Special open systems have been designed for such purposes, and dedicated non magnetic surgery tools have already been developed (Erkonen and Smith). Works Cited: Boller, Franà §ois, Jordan Grafman, and Ian H. Robertson. Handbook of Neuropsychology. Vol. 9. New York: Elsevier Health Sciences, 2003. Erkonen, William E., and Wilbur L. Smith. Radiology 101: The Basics and Fundamentals of Imaging. 2nd ed. New York: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2004. Moe, Barbara A. The Revolution in Medical Imaging. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, 2003. Moore, James E., and George Zouridakis. Biomedical Technology and Devices Handbook. New York: CRC Press, 2004. Oldendorf, William. Basics of Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Boston: Springer, 1988. Stergiopoulos, Stergios. Advanced Signal Processing Handbook: Theory and Implementation for Radar †¦ New York: CRC Press, 2001.